Examining the Association Between Trauma Characteristics and Adult Depression and Anxiety: Analysis of Types, Variety, Repetition, and Timing of Past Trauma.

Past research has emphasized the impact of prior trauma on adult depression and anxiety rates. However, few studies have examined the simultaneous connection between various trauma characteristics (e.g., type, variety, repetition, timing) and symptoms of depression and anxiety in adults. Understanding how these different trauma characteristics relate to mental health issues can offer valuable insight into predicting the onset of such problems. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis with 356 adult participants to explore the associations between lifetime trauma history and depression/anxiety scores. Participants retrospectively reported on five different traumatic experiences from birth to the present, including childhood physical abuse, witnessing parental violence, lifetime experiences of rape, witnessing trauma to loved ones, and the unexpected death of loved ones. For each trauma type, participants indicated the timing of their first exposure and the frequency of subsequent occurrences. Depression and anxiety symptoms in the past 2 weeks were also self-reported. Multiple regression analyses with covariates were employed. On average, participants experienced two out of the five trauma types. Regardless of the type, having at least one traumatic experience was linked to higher depression and anxiety scores. Those who experienced all five trauma types reported the highest levels of depression and anxiety. Repeated instances of rape, witnessing trauma to loved ones, and the death of loved ones were significantly associated with elevated depression and anxiety scores. The timing of exposure to the unexpected death of loved ones predicted higher depression scores in childhood compared to adulthood, while no relationship between timing and anxiety scores was observed. Other trauma types did not show significant associations. Our study enhances knowledge of the link between trauma and depression/anxiety by elucidating how various trauma characteristics, such as type, variety, repetition, and timing of trauma, have differential influences on depression and anxiety scores.

Effects of Neighborhood Disconnection on Psychological Distress and Suicide Risk Associated with Interpersonal Violence Within Racial Groups.

Negative mental health outcomes have been associated with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and intimate partner violence (IPV); however, few studies have identified risk and protective factors across levels of the social ecology that mitigate the onset of psychological distress and suicide risk associated with trauma. This study examines the relationship between ACEs, IPV, and mental health (i.e., psychological distress, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts) within racial sub-populations of Black American, Latinx, and White adults. An online, cross-section survey was administered to a general population sample of adults in Baltimore and New York City. ACEs, IPV, and mental health outcomes were assessed within racial sub-populations of Black American (N = 390), Latinx (N = 178), and White (N = 339) adults, while accounting for within-group demographic differences. Moderating effects of social support and neighborhood disconnection on the relationship between ACEs, IPV, and mental health outcomes were also assessed. IPV was associated with psychological distress and suicidal ideation for Black and Latinx adults, but not for White adults. ACEs were associated with increased psychological distress for all three groups, and increased odds for suicidal ideation among Black and Latinx adults.. A significant negative interaction effect for neighborhood disconnection was found in the relationship between ACEs and psychological distress for Black adults. Findings highlight the significant mental health burdens of ACEs and IPV within racial and ethnic groups. Neighborhood disconnection may exacerbate psychological distress associated with ACEs among populations most impacted by interpersonal violence and mental health inequalities.

Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence and the Harsh Parenting of Children.

While research shows that adult intimate partner violence (IPV) and harsh parenting of children co-occur, less information is available about whether specific types or patterns of IPV create greater risk for harsh parenting, and whether these patterns vary by gender. This study used latent class analysis (LCA) to examine unique patterns of IPV perpetration and victimization among men and women, and variation across patterns by gender, parenting status, and harsh parenting of children. Data are from the Lehigh Longitudinal study (n = 332). LCA produced four classes of IPV perpetration and victimization (Minor Psychological; None; Moderate; and Severe), which were invariant by gender. Although any level of IPV was associated with an increase in harsh parenting, patterns of IPV characterized by a greater number of and more severe types, were particularly associated with the use of harsh parenting toward their children for both mothers and fathers. Parents were overrepresented in all IPV classes compared to the No-IPV class. Results suggest the need for more broad screening and increased supports for parents that are tailored to different levels of need.

Child Maltreatment, Youth Violence, Intimate Partner Violence, and Elder Mistreatment: A Review and Theoretical Analysis of Research on Violence Across the Life Course.

This article reports the results of a scoping review of the literature on life-course patterns of violence that span the developmental periods of childhood, adolescence, and early and middle adulthood. We also assess the evidence on elder mistreatment and its relation to earlier forms of violence. Additionally, we draw on theories and empirical studies to help explain the transmission of violence over time and relational contexts and the factors that appear to mitigate risks and promote resilience in individuals exposed to violence. Results suggest that encounters with violence beginning in childhood elevate the risk for violence in subsequent developmental periods. The strongest connections are between child maltreatment (physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect) and violence in adolescence and between violence in adolescence and violence in early and middle adulthood. Persistence of violence into older adulthood leading to elder mistreatment is less well-documented, but probable, based on available research. We conclude that more attention should be paid to studying developmental patterns and intersecting forms of violence that extend into old age. To eradicate violence in all its forms, considerably more must be done to increase awareness of the repetition of violence; to connect research to actionable steps for prevention and intervention across the life course; and to better integrate systems that serve vulnerable children, youth, and adults. Primary prevention is essential to breaking the cycle of violence within families and to alleviating the risks to children caused by poverty and other external factors such as social disconnection within communities.

Child Protective Services Guidelines for Substantiating Exposure to Domestic Violence as Maltreatment and Assigning Caregiver Responsibility: Policy Analysis and Recommendations.

The purpose of this study was to examine the range of policy approaches used by child welfare systems in the United States to guide workers in classifying and substantiating child exposure to domestic violence (CEDV) as an actionable form of maltreatment. To that end, we conducted a qualitative document analysis of child protective services (CPS) policy manuals from all state-administered child welfare systems in the U.S. (N = 41). Our findings indicate that a majority of state-administered systems (71%) have adopted policy requiring workers to demonstrate that children have endured harm or the threat of harm before substantiating CEDV-related maltreatment. Many state systems (51%) also include policy directives that require workers to identify a primary aggressor during CPS investigations involving CEDV, while far fewer (37%) provide language that potentially exonerates survivors of domestic violence from being held accountable for failure to protect on the basis of their own victimization. Based on our findings and identification of policy exemplars, we offer a recommended set of quality policy indicators for states to consider in the formulation of their policy guidelines for substantiating children's exposure to domestic violence that promotes the safety and wellbeing of both children and adult survivors of domestic violence.

Does Educational Success Mitigate the Effect of Child Maltreatment on Later Offending Patterns?

Analyses examined offending patterns during adolescence and adulthood and their relation to child maltreatment subtypes and education factors measured during adolescence and adulthood. A total of 356 participants were followed from preschool to adulthood in a prospective longitudinal study. Child maltreatment subtypes include physical-emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect. Offending patterns were analyzed as latent classes of (a) chronic offending, (b) desistence, and (c) stable low-level or non-offending. Physical-emotional and sexual abuse were associated with a higher likelihood of chronic offending relative to stable low-level offending. Education variables, including high educational engagement and good academic performance, predicted a higher likelihood of low-level offending relative to desistence, but not desistence relative to chronic offending. Only educational attainment predicted desistence relative to chronic offending. There was no moderating effect of education variables on the association between child maltreatment subtypes and later offending patterns. Implications for research, practice, and policy are discussed.

Childhood maltreatment and later stressful life events as predictors of depression: A test of the stress sensitization hypothesis.

Objectives: Long-term negative effects of child maltreatment, including risk for depression, are well established. The role of acute stressors in the relationship between maltreatment and depression is not as clear. We used data from a prospective study to test a stress sensitization hypothesis; whether child maltreatment lowered the threshold at which adult household stressors impacted adult depression. We hypothesized that maltreatment would positively moderate the relationship between acute stressors and adult depressive symptoms. Method: Participants (n = 457) were majority White (~ 80%) and from low-income families (63%), and the sample was gender balanced (54% male) at the start of a 40-year longitudinal study examining the causes and consequences of child maltreatment. Regression analyses tested a main effects model for adult depression, modeled as a function of proximal adult household stressors and officially recorded child maltreatment, and controlled for measures of prior depression, household stress, and sociodemographic factors. A second model added the interaction between maltreatment and stressors to test the stress sensitization hypothesis. Results: Maltreatment had a positive overall association with adult depression. This association was not significant after taking into account adult stressors and other controls. Adult stressors had a unique, positive association with depression. The association between adult stressors and depression was stronger for participants with histories of child maltreatment. Conclusions: Child maltreatment increases sensitivity to later stressors, adding to the risk for depression. Findings are generally consistent with prior studies linking child maltreatment, stress, and later depression and provide support for stress sensitization extending into adulthood.

Gender Differences in Intimate Partner Violence: A Predictive Analysis of IPV by Child Abuse and Domestic Violence Exposure During Early Childhood.

This study focused on gender differences in the prediction of adult intimate partner violence (IPV) by subtypes of child abuse and children's exposure to IPV. Latent classes of adult IPV consisted of a no violence (20.3%), a psychological violence only (46.2%), a psychological and sexual violence (9.2%), a multitype violence and intimidation (6.8%), and a psychological and physical violence with low intimidation class (17.5%). Physical-emotional child abuse and domestic violence exposure predicted a higher likelihood of multitype violence for males. Sexual abuse predicted a higher likelihood of this same class for females. Implications for future research and prevention are discussed.